Ergonomics for Children
Table of Contents
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A.
Introduction
1.
Introduction to the book
Rani
Lueder & Valerie Berg Rice
With
thanks to the memory of Cheryl Bennett
This
book is an attempt to provide a Practical User's Manual about
ergonomics and children for professionals who design for and work
and play with children. As such, it is a different sort of book
than others in the field. It cuts across a wide swath of
disciplines such as ergonomics, psychology, medicine,
rehabilitation, exercise physiology, optometry, education,
architecture, urban planning, law and others.
Children are clearly not "little adults", but how do
they differ, and how do such differences affect the design of
products and places that they use? How can we better help them
face new and unique challenges, such as when using new
technologies? The questions were simple, but the answers were not.
B.
Child abilities and health
2.
Developmental stages of children
Tina
Brown & Melissa Beran (Intertek-RAM)
Each
child is unique, yet children also undergo universal developmental
stages that are affected by their life-experiences and culture.
We can predict when, how and why children do the things they do
based on the cognitive, physical, social, emotional and language
dimensions of each developmental stage.
3.
Child anthropometry
Beverley Norris & Stuart A. Smith (
Anthropometry
is the scientific measurement of human body sizes, shapes and
physical capabilities. Anthropometric data helps us evaluate the
fit between children and the products and environments the use.
An understanding of this fit is critical to ensure that children
can use (and enjoy) products intended for them. At the same time,
it protects them from harm by ensuring that hazards are properly
guarded or placed out of reach.
4.
Visual ergonomics for children
Knut
Inge Fostervold & Dennis Ankrum (University of Oslo &
Ankrum Assoc.)
Children
are exposed to very different visual environments than previous
generations. Yet these technologies are often used without regard
for the corresponding implications for children's comfort, health
and long-term well-being. Further, children's visual environments
may adversely affect their postures and postural risk. This
chapter reviews what we know about the ergonomic implications
related to vision and to the use of new technologies.
5.
Children and hearing
Nancy
L. Vause (ARL-HRED AMEDD)
Loud
and distracting noise can damage our hearing, potentially
hindering our ability to learn and fully experience our lives.
This chapter reviews the literature on the impact of noise on
hearing, the nature of hearing loss and its effect on learning in
the classroom. It also provides guidance for designing effective
classroom environments that will reduce sound distractions and
promote hearing.
6.
Physical development in children and adolescents and
age-related risks
Rani
Lueder (Humanics Ergonomics)
Children
today must face different demands than with preceding generations.
In general, children are also taller, heavier and less fit. Many
children (particularly girls) experience puberty earlier than
previous generations, increasing the potential for musculoskeletal
pain and disorders. Children's injury risks are also different
than those adults commonly experience. This chapter reviews how
children's musculoskeletal systems develop and the corresponding
implications for developing back pain and other soft tissue
disorders and injury.
7.
Physical education and exercise for children
Barbara H. Boucher (Consultant)
Children
benefit mentally, physically and socially from physical activity.
Exercise is essential for proper development of bones, muscles and
joints. It promotes health, improves alertness, self-esteem and
outlook. User-centered physical education programs incorporate
principles of child development, build on environmental influences
and consider the child as a whole. This chapter reviews how
children develop physiologically, cognitively and socially between
the ages of 5 and 15, and the implications for effective physical
activity programs.
C.
Injuries, health disorders and disabilities
8.
Children and injuries
Valerie Berg Rice (General Ergonomics)
A
child's "work" is to develop physically, emotionally,
socially and cognitively. Eliminating all risks would also
eliminate challenges essential to children's growth and
development. This chapter focuses on preventing injuries that are
most common among children: falls, burns, poison, choking and
drowning. It includes design and safety considerations for
products, places and tasks to promote effective environments while
reducing the potential for injuries.
9.
Assistive technologies for children
Robin
Springer (Computer Talk)
Assistive
technologies enable people with disabilities to participate in
activities of daily living, helping to ensure equal opportunities.
These items range from high tech to everyday products that include
wheelchairs, adapted vans, communication devices and modified
computers. This chapter aims to help the reader understand a broad
range of assistive technologies and to evaluate their
appropriateness for the user. It also reviews considerations for
using them effectively.
10.
Meeting the needs of disabled children in developing countries
David Werner (HealthWrights.org)
Helping disabled children in developing villages requires working with them to create solutions that provide a "goodness of fit" with their life circumstances. Adapting simple, locally made equipment while involving the disabled child and their family helps them fit in their community. Even rehabilitation exercises can isolate a child from their community and emphasize how they differ from their peers; work-based therapeutic activities can help them build on strengths rather than limitations.
D.
Children and product design
11.
Designing products for children
Valerie Berg Rice & Rani Lueder
This
chapter reviews the ergonomic considerations for designing
products for children to encourage their proper use, safety and
fun. It also summarizes the research and provides guidelines for
evaluating a range of products, from baby cribs and strollers to
youth recreation.
Supplement: Children's safety and handguns
Hal W.
Hendrick (Hendrick & Associates)
Children,
handgun design and safety.
12.
Children's play with toys
Brenda Torres (Intertek-RAM)
Today,
the focus on ergonomics in toy design has broadened beyond safety
and comfort to designing toys to fit the child user. Today's
consumers also expect products to be easy to use, functional,
pleasurable and to contribute to growth and development. This
requires an understanding of children's developmental stages.
13.
Bookbags for children
Karen Jacobs, Renee Lockhart, Hsin-Yu Chiang & Mary O’Hara (
Backpacks
are a practical way to transport schoolwork. Even so, research
indicates that the design of the Bookbags and how it is used
influence the risk of developing musculoskeletal injuries.
14.
Warnings and children
Michael J. Kalsher (
Young children do not have the cognitive abilities to recognize and avoid risks. This chapter reviews the range of issues surrounding how best to inform children and caregivers of hazards. It considers the roles of manufacturers and caregivers in protecting children by designing out the hazard, guarding against the hazard and warnings.
E.
Children at home
15.
Stairways for children
Jake Pauls (Consultant, Building Use)
Climbing
and descending stairs requires a combination of strength, balance,
timing and equilibrium. It takes coordinated effort to avoid
missteps, falls and injury. This chapter focuses on design
factors that contribute to ease-of-use and safety for children on
stairs. Important considerations include stairway visibility, step
dimensions and handholds.
16.
Child use of technology at home
Cheryl L. Bennett (Lawrence Livermore Labs)
New
technologies are increasingly common in the home. These must do
more than accommodate children's physical and mental abilities; it
is important for child users to understand basic principles of
posture, body mechanics and the risks and benefits associated with
using computers and other electronic devices. Imparting an
awareness of the importance of position, posture and comfort to
children at an early age can establish habits that will empower
them throughout their lives.
17.
Children in vehicles
Rani Lueder (Humanics Ergonomics)
Motor
vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death and serious
injuries in children at every age after their first birthday.
Children's injuries are also more severe than those of adults;
their small size and developing bones and muscles make them more
susceptible to injury in car crashes if not properly restrained.
Many of these deaths could have been avoided, such as by proper
design and use of child restraints that are appropriate for the
child's age, positioning in the vehicle and many other factors.
18.
Preventing musculoskeletal disorders among youth working on
farms
Thomas R. Waters (NIOSH / National Institute of Occupational
Safety & Health)
Farms
are one of the most hazardous places for anyone to work. Children
and adolescents on family farms begin helping at very young ages,
often performing physically demand-in jobs designed for adults.
These jobs may exceed children's capabilities and lead to acute or
chronic musculoskeletal disorders. The jobs include lifting and
moving materials, operating farm equipment and performing other
tasks that re-quire strength and coordination.
F.
Children and schools
19.
Preschool and daycare design
Lorraine E. Maxwell (
Physical
preschool environments play a critical role on children's
cognitive, social, physical and emotional development.
Stimulating and well-organized childcare settings help children
develop their vocabularies, attention and memory skills and social
interactions with peers.
20.
Children and handwriting ergonomics
Cindy Burt (UCLA) & Mary Benbow (Consultant)
Many
of us take children's ability to learn to write for granted. Yet
handwriting is physically and intellectually demanding. Postural
instability, paper and pencil positioning and limited gripping
ability are correlated with poor handwriting performance. Creating
effective child environments for writing requires more than simply
supplying a place for children to copy letters. Effective learning
environments must be directive, supportive and intriguing for
children as they develop this new way to communicate. Children
need appropriate writing tasks and tools and must be
developmentally ready to write.
21.
School furniture and children
Alan Hedge (
Research
indicates that many schoolchildren sit in furniture that does not
fit them properly. Schoolchildren who sit in awkward postures for
long durations can experience musculoskeletal symptom that worsen
with time. Yet common assumptions about what is ergonomically
"proper" for adults may not be appropriate for children.
This chapter reviews ergonomic design considerations for classroom
furniture and summarizes worldwide ergonomics research into the
design of comfortable school furniture.
22.
Child-friendly user interfaces in the digital world
Libby Hanna (Hanna Research)
Children,
like adults, need ergonomic "user friendly" interfaces
in the broad range of electronic media they use on a regular
basis.
Ergonomic design guidelines can set the stage for children's
initial interactions with a product, enabling them to use products
intuitively and fluidly. The products should be easy to use and
geared to their particular developmental stages in hand-eye
coordination and cognitive skills. Children also need media
content that offers opportunities for growth. Ergonomic guidelines
can stimulate and nurture development by providing electronic
media that enrich children's lives.
23.
Information and communication technologies in schools
Clare Pollock & Leon Straker (
This
chapter reviews the ergonomic implications of using information
and communication technologies in schools. It also provides
guidelines for implementing and using these technologies to
promote child learning and well-being.
24.
Rethinking school design: New directions in child learning
David Gulland (
The quality of learning environments can enhance learning outcomes, as learners respond positively to stimulating spaces. Poor school designs create barriers to learning by physically isolating students from each other and hindering the sense of belonging, ownership or engagement with the space. This chapter compares traditional schools with innovative new schools that reflect a paradigm shift on environmental influences on learning.
G.
Children and public spaces
25.
Designing cities and neighborhoods for children
Rani Lueder (Humanics Ergonomics)
The
design of children's neighborhoods is central to their physical,
emotional and cognitive development, their physical activities and
perceived and actual safety. This chapter reviews the design
of streets and neighborhoods to encourage outdoor play and
physical activity while protecting them from traffic; discourage
behaviors that lead to crime through design and many other topics
for creating livable cities and neighborhoods for children.
26.
Children and wayfinding
Gary Allen (Univ. South
Children
are explorers by nature, and their wayfinding skills improve
dramatically with age and practice. Further, individual children
vary greatly in their wayfinding abilities. This chapter
identifies wayfinding strategies and reviews methods to enhance
children's wayfinding skills. It also provides guidelines for
design that will help children orient themselves.
27.
Designing museum experiences for children
Jeff Kennedy & Marjorie Prager (Jeff Kennedy Associates, Inc.)
The
last twenty-five years has seen a boom in museum experiences for
children. Museums of all kinds - science centers, art and history
museums, zoos, aquariums and nature centers - offer experiences
that engage and entertain children. This chapter reviews ergonomic
implications for accommodating children and their caregivers in
these environments.
28.
Playground safety and ergonomics
Alison G. Vredenburgh & Ilene B. Zackowitz (Vredenburgh &
Associates)
Playgrounds
enable children to develop physical and social skills in fun and
stimulating environments. Playgrounds provide children with
"work" activities that help them develop skills such as
eye-hand coordination and balance.
The fit between the child user and their environments is critical
in playgrounds. Children need challenge in safe environments.
Improper playground design or maintenance can contribute to
injuries. This chapter focuses on safety issues that help reduce
children's exposure to danger and reviews common playground
hazards, child user requirements and design guidelines.